The following background section is, in part, reprinted from “Design Techniques for EMC—Part 4 Shielding” by Eur Ing Keith Armstrong, Cherry Clough Consultants, Associate of EMC-UK.
A complete volumetric shield is often known as a “Faraday Cage”, although this can give the impression that a cage full of holes (like Mr Faraday's original) is acceptable, which it generally is not. There is a cost hierarchy to shielding which makes it commercially important to consider shielding early in the design process. Shields may be fitted around: individual ICs—example cost 25P; segregated areas of PCB circuitry—example cost £1; whole PCBs—example cost £10 sub-assemblies and modules—example cost £15; complete products—example cost £100 assemblies (e.g. industrial control and instrumentation cubicles)—example cost £1,000 rooms—example cost £10, 0000 and buildings—example cost £100,000.
Shielding always adds cost and weight, so it is always best to use the other techniques described in this series to improve EMC and reduce the need for shielding. Even when it is hoped to avoid shielding altogether, it is best to allow for Murphy's Law and design from the very conception so that shielding can be added later if necessary. A degree of shielding can also be achieved by keeping all conductors and components very close to a solid metal sheet. Ground-planed PCBs populated entirely by low-profile surface mounted devices are therefore recommended for their EMC advantages.
A useful degree of shielding can be achieved in electronic assemblies firstly, by keeping their internal electronic units and cables very close to an earthed metal surface at all times, and secondly, by bonding their earths directly to the metal surface instead of (or as well as) using a safety star earthing system based on green/yellow wires. This technique usually uses zinc-plated mounting plates or chassis, and can help avoid the need for high values of enclosure SE.
Many textbooks have been written on the subject of how shields work, and it is not intended to repeat them here. However, a few broad concepts will help. A shield puts an impedance discontinuity in the path of a propagating radiated electromagnetic wave, reflecting it and/or absorbing it. This is conceptually very similar to the way in which filters work—they put an impedance discontinuity in the path of an unwanted conducted signal. The greater the impedance ratio, the greater the SE.
At thicknesses of 0.5 mm or over, most normal fabrication metals provide good SE above 1 MHz and excellent SE above 100 MHz. Problems with metal shields are mostly caused by thin materials, frequencies below 1 MHz, and apertures.
It is generally best to allow a large distance between the circuits that are shielded and the walls of their shield. The emitted fields outside of the shield, and the fields that the devices are subjected to, will generally be more “diluted” the larger the shielded volume.
When enclosures have parallel walls opposite each other, standing waves can build up at resonant frequencies and these can cause SE problems. Irregular shaped enclosures or ones with curved or non-parallel walls will help prevent resonances. When opposing shield walls are parallel, it is desirable to prevent resonances from occurring at the same frequencies due to the width, height, or length. So in order to avoid cubic enclosures, rectangular cross-sections can be used instead of square ones, and it is preferable to avoid dimensions that are simple multiples of each other. For example, if the length is 1.5 times the width, the second resonance of the width should coincide with the third resonance of the length. It is preferable to use irrationally ratio'd dimensions, such as those provided by the Fibonacci series.
Fields come in two flavours: electric (E) and magnetic (M). Electromagnetic fields consist of E and M fields in a given ratio (giving a wave impedance E/M of 377 in air). Electric fields are easily stopped by thin metal foils since the mechanism for electric field shielding is one of charge re-distribution at a conductive boundary; therefore, almost anything with a high conductivity (low resistance) will present suitably low impedance. At high frequencies, considerable displacement currents can result from the rapid rate of charge re-distribution, but even thin aluminium can manage with this well. However, magnetic fields are much more difficult to stop. They need to generate eddy currents inside the shield material to create magnetic fields that oppose the impinging field. Thin aluminium is not going to be very suitable for this purpose, and the depth of current penetration required for a given SE depends on the frequency of the field. The SE also depends on the characteristics of the metal used for the shield which is known as the “skin effect”.
The skin depth of the shield material known as the “skin effect” makes the currents caused by the impinging magnetic field to be reduced by approximately 9 dB. Hence a material which was as thick as 3 skin depths would have an approximately 27 dB lower current on its opposite side and have an SE of approximately 27 dB for that M field.
Skin effect is especially important at low frequencies where the fields experienced are more likely to be predominantly magnetic with lower wave impedance than 377′Ω. The formula for skin depth is given in most textbooks; however, the formula requires knowledge of the shielding material's conductivity and relative permeability.
Copper and aluminium have over 5 times the conductivity of steel, so are very good at stopping electric fields, but have a relative permeability of 1 (the same as air). Typical mild steel has a relative permeability of around 300 at low frequencies, falling to 1 as frequencies increase above 100 kHz. The higher permeability of mild steel gives it a reduced skin depth, making the reasonable thicknesses better than aluminium for shielding low frequencies. Different grades of steels (especially stainless) have different conductivities and permeabilities, and their skin depths will vary considerably as a result. A good material for a shield will have high conductivity and high permeability, and sufficient thickness to achieve the required number of skin-depths at the lowest frequency of concern. 1 mm thick mild steel plated with pure zinc (for instance 10 microns or more) is suitable for many applications.
It is easy to achieve SE figures of 100 dB or more at frequencies above 30 MHz with ordinary constructional metalwork. However, this assumes a perfectly enclosing shield volume with no joints or gaps, which makes assembly of the product rather difficult unless you are prepared to seam-weld it completely and also have no external cables, antenna, or sensors (rather an unusual product). In practice, whether shielding is being done to reduce emissions or to improve immunity, most shield performance is limited by the apertures within it.
Considering apertures as holes in an otherwise perfect shield implies that the apertures act as half-wave resonant “slot antenna”. This allows us to make predictions about maximum aperture sizes for a given SE: for a single aperture, SE=20 log(′Ω/2d) where ′Ω is the wavelength at the frequency of interest and d is the longest dimension of the aperture. In practice, this assumption may not always be accurate, but it has the virtue of being an easy design tool that is a good framework. It may be possible to refine this formula following practical experiences with the technologies and construction methods used on specific products.
The resonant frequency of a slot antenna is governed by its longest dimension—its diagonal. It makes little difference how wide or narrow an aperture is, or even whether there is a line-of-sight through the aperture.
Even apertures, the thickness of a paint or oxide film, formed by overlapping metal sheets, still radiate (leak) at their resonant frequency just as well as if they were wide enough to poke a finger through. One of the most important EMC issues is keeping the products' internal frequencies internal, so they don't pollute the radio spectrum externally.
The half-wave resonance of slot antenna (expressed in the above rule of thumb: SE=20 log(2d)) using the relationship c=f(lambda) (where c is the speed of light: 3.10(power of 8) meters/sec, f is the frequency in Hz, and lambda is the wavelength in meters). We find that a narrow 430 mm long gap along the front edge of a 19-inch rack unit's front panel will be half-wave resonant at around 350 MHz. At this frequency, our example 19″ front panel is no longer providing much shielding and removing it entirely might not make much difference.
For an SE of 20 dB at 1 GHz, an aperture no larger than around 16 mm is needed. For 40 dB this would be only 1.6 mm, requiring the gaskets to seal apertures and/or the use of the waveguide below cut-off techniques described later. An actual SE in practice will depend on internal resonances between the walls of the enclosure itself, the proximity of components and conductors to apertures (keep noisy cables such as ribbon cables carrying digital busses well away from shield apertures and joints) and the impedances of the fixings used to assemble the parts of the enclosure, etc.
Wherever possible, it is desirable to break all necessary or unavoidable apertures into a number of smaller ones. Unavoidably long apertures (covers, doors, etc) may need conductive gaskets or spring fingers (or other means of maintaining shield continuity). The SE of a number of small identical apertures nearby each other is (roughly) proportional to their number (SE=20 log n, where n is the number of apertures), so two apertures will be worse by 6 dB, four by 12 dB, 8 by 18 dB, and so on. But when the wavelength at the frequency of concern starts to become comparable with the overall size of the array of small apertures, or when apertures are not near to each other (compared with the wavelength), this crude '6 dB per doubling rule breaks down because of phase cancellation effects.
Apertures placed more than half a wavelength apart do not generally worsen the SEs that achieves individually, but half a wavelength at 100 MHz is 1.5 meters. At such low frequencies on typical products smaller than this, an increased number of apertures will tend to worsen the enclosure's SE.
Apertures don't merely behave as slot antenna. Currents flowing in a shield and forced to divert their path around an aperture will cause it to emit magnetic fields. Voltage differences across an aperture will cause the aperture to emit electric fields. The author has seen dramatic levels of emissions at 130 MHz from a hole no more than 4 mm in diameter (intended for a click-in plastic mounting pillar) in a small PCB-mounted shield over a microcontroller.
The only really sensible way to discover the SE of any complex enclosure with apertures is to model the structure, along with any PCBs and conductors (especially those that might be near any apertures) with a 3-dimensional field solver. Software packages that can do this now have more user-friendly interfaces and run on desktop PCs. Alternatively, you will be able to find a university or design consultancy that has the necessary software and the skills to drive it.
Since an SE will vary strongly with the method and quality of assembly, materials, and internal PCBs and cables, it is always best to allow yourself an SE ‘safety margin’ of 20 dB. It may also be best to allow yourself at least design-in features that will allow you to improve the SE by at least 20 dB if you have problems with the final design's verification/qualification testing.
The frequency of 50 Hz is problematic, and an SE at this frequency with any reasonable thickness of ordinary metals is desirable. Special materials such as Mumetal and Radiometal have very high relative permeabilities, often in the region of 10,000. Their skin depth is correspondingly very small, but they are only effective up to a few tens of kHz. Care must be taken not to knock items made of these materials, as this ruins their permeability and they have to be thrown away or else re-annealed in a hydrogen atmosphere. These exotic materials are used rather like channels to divert the magnetic fields away from the volume to be protected. This is a different concept to that used by ordinary shielding.
All metals shield materials with relative permeability greater than 1 can saturate in intense magnetic fields, and then don't work well as shields and often heat up. A steel or Mumetal shield box over a mains transformer to reduce its hum fields can saturate and fail to achieve the desired effect. Often, all that is necessary is to make the box larger so it does not experience such intense local fields. Another shielding technique for low frequency shielding is active cancellation, and at least two companies have developed this technique specifically for stabilizing the images of CRT VDUs in environments polluted by high levels of power frequency magnetic fields.
FIG. 14A shows that if we extend the distance that a wave leaking through an aperture has to travel between surrounding metal walls before it reaches freedom, we can achieve respectable SEs even though the apertures may be large enough to put your fist through. This very powerful technique is called “waveguide below cut-off”. Honeycomb metal constructions are really a number of waveguides below cut-off stacked side-by-side, and are often used as ventilation grilles for shielded rooms, similar to high-SE enclosures.
Like any aperture, a waveguide allows all its impinging fields to pass through when its internal diagonal (g) is half a wavelength. Therefore, the cut-off frequency of our waveguide is given by f (cutoff)=150,000/g (answer in MHz when g is in mm.) Below its cut-off frequency, a waveguide does not leak like an ordinary aperture (as shown by FIG. 4H) and can provide a great deal of shielding: for f<0.5 f(cutoff) SE is approximately 27 d/g where d is the distance through the waveguide the wave has to travel before it is free.
FIG. 14A shows examples of the SE achieved by six different sizes of waveguides below cut-off. Smaller diameter (g) results in a higher cut-off frequency, with a 50 mm (2 inch) diameter achieving full attenuation by 1 GHz. Increased depth (d) results in increased SE, with very high values being readily achieved.
Waveguides below cut-off do not have to be made out of tubes, and can be realized using simple sheet metalwork which folds the depth (d) so as not to increase the size of the product by much. As a technique it is only limited by the imagination, but it must be taken into consideration early in a project as it is usually difficult to retrofit to a failing product not intended to use it. Conductors should never be passed through waveguides below cut-off, as this compromises their effectiveness. Waveguides below cut-off can be usefully applied to plastic shafts (e.g. control knobs) so that they do not compromise the SE where they exit an enclosure. The alternative is to use metal shafts with a circular conductive gasket and suffer the resulting friction and wear. Waveguides below cut-off can avoid the need for continuous strips of gasket, and/or for multiple fixings, and thus save material costs and assembly times.
Gaskets are used to prevent leaky apertures at joints, seams, doors and removable panels. For fit-and-forget assemblies, gasket design is not too difficult, but doors, hatches, covers, and other removable panels create many problems for gaskets, as they must meet a number of conflicting mechanical and electrical requirements, not to mention chemical requirements(to prevent corrosion). Shielding gaskets are sometimes required to be environmental seals as well, adding to the compromise.
FIG. 14B shows a typical gasket design for the door of an industrial cabinet, using a conductive rubber or silicone compound to provide an environmental seal as well as an EMC shield. Spring fingers are often used in such applications as well.
It is worth noting that the green/yellow wire used for safety earthing of a door or panel has no benefits for EMC above a few hundred kHz. This might be extended to a few MHz if a short wide earthing strap is used instead of a long wire.
A huge range of gasket types is available from a number of manufacturers, most of whom also offer customizing services. This observation reveals that no one gasket is suitable for a wide range of applications. Considerations when designing or selecting gaskets include: (1) mechanical compliance; (2) compression set; (3) impedance over a wide range of frequencies; (4) resistance to corrosion (low galvanic EMFs in relation to its mating materials, appropriate for the intended environment); (5) the ability to withstand the expected rigours of normal use; (6) shape and preparation of mounting surface (7) ease of assembly and dis-assembly; and (8) environmental sealing, and smoke and fire requirements.
There are four main types of shielding gaskets: (1) conductive polymers (insulating polymers with metal particles in them). These double as environmental seals, have low compression set but need significant contact pressure, making them difficult to use in manually-opened doors without lever assistance; (2) conductively wrapped polymers (polymer foam or tube with a conductive outer coating); These can be very soft and flexible, with low compression set. Some only need low levels of contact pressure. However, they may not make the best environmental seals and their conductive layer may be vulnerable to wear; (3) metal meshes (random or knitted) are generally very stiff but match the impedance of metal enclosures better and so have better SEs than the above types. They have poor environmental sealing performance, but some are now supplied bonded to an environmental seal, so that two types of gaskets may be applied in one operation; (4) spring fingers (“finger stock”)are usually made of beryllium copper or stainless steel and can be very compliant. Their greatest use is on modules (and doors) which must be easy to manually extract (open), easy to insert (close), and which have a high level of use. Their wiping contact action helps to achieve a good bond, and their impedance match to metal enclosures is good, but when they don't apply high pressures, maintenance may be required (possibly a smear of petroleum jelly every few years). Spring fingers are also more vulnerable to accidental damage, such as getting caught in a coat sleeve and bending or snapping off. The dimensions of spring fingers and the gaps between them causes inductance, so for high frequencies or critical use a double row may be required, such as can be seen on the doors of most EMC test chambers.
Gaskets need appropriate mechanical provisions made on the product to be effective and easy to assemble. Gaskets simply stuck on a surface and squashed between mating parts may not work as well as is optimal—the more their assembly screws are tightened in an effort to compress the gasket and make a good seal, the more the gaps between the fixings can bow, opening up leaky gaps. This is because of inadequate stiffness in the mating parts, and it is difficult to make the mating parts rigid enough without a groove for the gasket to be squashed into, as shown by FIG. 14B. This groove also helps correctly position and retains the gasket during assembly.
Gasket contact areas must not be painted (unless it is with conductive paint), and the materials used and their preparation and plating must be carefully considered from the point of view of galvanic corrosion. All gasket details and measures must be shown on manufacturing drawings, and all proposed changes to them assessed for their impact on shielding and EMC. It is not uncommon, when painting work is transferred to a different supplier, for gaskets to be made useless because masking information was not put on the drawings. Changes in the painting processes used can also have a deleterious effect (as can different painting operatives) due to varying degrees of overspray into gasket mounting areas which are not masked off.
FIG. 14C shows a large aperture in the wall of the shielded enclosure, using an internal “dirty box” to control the field leakage through the aperture. The joint between the dirty box and the inside of the enclosure wall must be treated the same as any other joint in the shield.
A variety of shielded windows are available, based on two main technologies: (1) thin metal films on plastic sheets, usually indium-tin-oxide (ITO). At film thicknesses of 8 microns and above, optical degradation starts to become unacceptable, and for battery-powered products, the increased backlight power may prove too onerous. The thickness of these films may be insufficient to provide good SEs below 100 MHz; (2) embedded metal meshes, usually a fine mesh of blackened copper wires. For the same optical degradation as a metal film, these provide much higher SEs, but they can suffer from Moiré fringing with the display pixels if the mesh is not sized correctly. One trick is to orient the mesh diagonally.
Honeycomb metal display screens are also available for the very highest shielding performance. These are large numbers of waveguides below cut-off, stacked side by side, and are mostly used in security or military applications. The extremely narrow viewing angle of the waveguides means that the operator's head prevents anyone else from sneaking a look at their displays.
The mesh size must be small enough not to reduce the enclosure's SE too much. The SE of a number of small identical apertures near to each other is (roughly) proportional to their number, n, (SE 20 logn), so two apertures will make SE worse by 6 dB, four by 12 dB, 8 by 14 dB, and so on. For a large number of small apertures typical of a ventilation grille, mesh size will be considerably smaller than one aperture on its own would need to be for the same SE. At higher frequencies where the size of the ventilation aperture exceeds one-quarter of the wavelength, this crude “6 dB per doubling” formula can lead to over-engineering, but no simple rule of thumb exists for this situation.
Waveguides below cut-off allow high air flow rates with high values of SE. Honeycomb metal ventilation shields (consisting of many long narrow hexagonal tubes bonded side-by-side) have been used for this purpose for many years. It is believed that at least one manufacturer of highly shielded 19″ rack cabinets claims to use waveguide below cut-off shielding for the top and bottom ventilation apertures that use ordinary sheet metalwork techniques.
The design of shielding for ventilation apertures can be complicated by the need to clean the shield of the dirt deposited on it from the air. Careful air filter design can allow ventilation shields to be welded or otherwise permanently fixed in place.
Plastic enclosures are often used for a pleasing feel and appearance, but can be difficult to shield. Coating the inside of the plastic enclosure with conductive materials such as metal particles in a binder (conductive paint), or with actual metal (plating), is technically demanding and requires attention to detail during the design of the mould tooling if it is to stand a chance of working.
It is often found, when it is discovered that shielding is necessary, that the design of the plastic enclosure does not permit the required SE to be achieved by coating its inner surfaces. The weak points are usually the seams between the plastic parts; they often cannot ensure a leak-tight fit, and usually cannot easily be gasketted. Expensive new mould tools are often needed, with consequent delays to market introduction and to the start of income generation from the new product.
Whenever a plastic case is required for a new product, it is financially vital that consideration be given to achieving the necessary SE right from the start of the design process.
Paint or plating on plastic can never be very thick, so the number of skin-depths achieved can be quite small. Some clever coatings using nickel and other metals have been developed to take advantage of nickel's reasonably high permeability in order to reduce skin depth and achieve better SE.
Other practical problems with painting and plating include making them stick to the plastic substrate over the life of the product in its intended environment. Not easy to do without expert knowledge of the materials and processes. Conductive paint or plating flaking off inside a product can do a lot more than compromise EMC—it can short out conductors, causing unreliable operation and risking fires and electrocution. Painting and plating plastics must be done by experts with long experience in that specialized field.
A special problem with painting or plating plastics is voltage isolation. For class 11 products (double insulated), adding a conductive layer inside the plastic cases can reduce creepage and clearance distances and compromise electrical safety. Also, for any plastic-cased product, adding a conductive layer to the internal surface of the case can encourage personnel electrostatic discharge (ESD) through seams and joints, possibly replacing a problem of radiated interference with the problem of susceptibility to ESD. For commercial reasons, it is important that careful design of the plastic enclosure occurs from the beginning of the design process if there is any possibility that shielding might eventually be required.
Some companies box by using thin and unattractive low-cost metal shields on printed circuit boards or around assemblies, making it unnecessary for their pretty plastic case to do double duty as a shield. This can save a great deal of cost and headache, but must be considered from the start of a project or else there will be no room available (or the wrong type of room) to fit such internal metalwork.
Volume-conductive plastics or resins generally use distributed conductive particles or threads in an insulating binder which provides mechanical strength. Sometimes these suffer from forming a “skin” of the basic plastic or resin, making it difficult to achieve good RF bonds without helicoil inserts or similar means. These insulating skins make it difficult to prevent long apertures which are created at joints, and also make it difficult to provide good bonds to the bodies of connectors, glands, and filters. Problems with the consistency of mixing conductive particles and polymer can make enclosures weak in some areas and lacking in shielding in others.
Materials based on carbon fibres (which are themselves conductive) and self-conductive polymers are starting to become available, but they do not have the high conductivity of metal and so do not give as good an SE for a given thickness. The screens and connectors (or glands) of all screened cables that penetrate a shielded enclosure, and their 360 degree bonding, are as vital a part of any “Faraday Cage” as the enclosure metalwork itself. The thoughtful assembly and installation of filters for unshielded external cables is also vital to achieve a good SE. Refer to the draft IEC1000-5-6 (95/210789 DC from BSI) for best practices in industrial cabinet shielding (and filtering), which is hereby incorporated by reference. Refer to BS IEC 61000-5-2:1998 for best practices in cabling (and earthing), which is also incorporated by reference herein.
Returning to our original theme of applying shielding at as low a level of assembly as possible to save costs, we should consider the issues of shielding at the level of the PCB. The ideal PCB-level shield is a totally enclosing metal box with shielded connectors and feedthrough filters mounted in its walls, really just a miniature version of a product-level shielded enclosure as described above. The result is often called a module which can provide extremely high SEs, and is very often used in the RF and microwave worlds.
Lower cost PCB shields are possible, although their SE is not usually as good as a well-designed module. All depend upon a ground plane in a PCB used to provide one side of the shield, so that a simple five-sided box can be assembled on the PCB like any other component. Soldering this five-sided box to the ground plane at a number of points around its circumference creates a “Faraday cage” around the desired area of circuitry. A variety of standard five-sided PCB-mounted shielding boxes are readily available, and companies who specialize in this kind of precision metalwork often make custom designs. Boxes are available with snap-on lids so that adjustments may easily be made, test points accessed, or chips replaced, with the lid off. Such removable lids are usually fitted with spring-fingers all around their circumference to achieve a good SE when they are snapped in place.
Weak points in this method of shielding are obviously the apertures created by the gaps between the ground-plane soldered connections, any apertures in the ground plane (for example clearances around through-leads and via holes), and any other apertures in the five-sided box (for example ventilation, access to adjustable components, displays, etc.) Seam-soldering the edges of a five-sided box to a component-side ground plane can remove one set of apertures, at the cost of a time-consuming manual operation.
For the lowest cost, we want to bring all our signals and power into the shielded area of our PCB as tracks, avoiding wires and cables. This means we need to use the PCB equivalents of bulkhead-mounting shielded connectors, and bulkhead-mounting filters.
The PCB track equivalent of a shielded cable is a track run between two ground planes, often called a “stripline.” Sometimes guard tracks are run on both sides of this “shielded track” on the same copper layer. These guard tracks have very frequently via holes bonding them to the top and bottom ground planes. The number of via holes per inch is the limiting factor here, as the gaps between them act as shield apertures (the guard tracks have too much inductance on their own to provide a good SE at high-frequencies). Since the dielectric constant of the PCB material is roughly four times that of air, when FIGS. 14A–E are used to determine via spacing, their frequency axes should be divided by two (the square root of the PCB's dielectric constant). Some designers don't bother with the guard tracks and just use via holes to “channel” the track in question. It may be a good idea to randomly vary the spacings of such rows of via holes around the desired spacing in order to help avoid resonances.
Where striplines enter an area of circuitry enclosed by a shielded box, it is sufficient that their upper and lower ground planes (and any guard tracks) are bonded to the screening can's soldered joints on both sides close to the stripline.
The track which only has a single ground plane layer in parallel, the other side being exposed to the air, is said to be of “microstrip” construction. When a microstrip enters a shielded PCB box, it will suffer an impedance discontinuity due to the wall of the box. If the wavelength of the highest frequency component of the signals in the microstrip is greater than 100 times the thickness of the box wall (or the width of box mounting flange), the discontinuity may be too brief to register. But where this is not the case, some degradation in performance may occur and such signals are best routed using striplines.
All unshielded tracks must be filtered as they enter a shielded PCB area. It is often possible to get valuable improvements using PCB shielding without such filtering, but this is difficult to predict. Therefore, filtering should always be designed-in (at least on prototypes, only being removed from the PCB layout after successful EMC testing).
The best filters are feedthrough types, but to save cost we need to avoid wired types. Leaded PCB-mounting types are available and can be soldered to a PCB in the usual manner. Then the leaded PCB mount is hand-soldered to the wall of the screening box when it is fitted at a later stage. Quicker assembly can be achieved by soldering the central contact of the filter to the underlying ground plane, making sure that solder joints between the shielding box and the same ground plane layer are close by on both sides. This latter construction also suits surface-mounted “feed-through” filters, further reducing assembly costs.
But feed-through filters, even surface mounted types, are still more expensive than simple ferrite beads or capacitors. To allow the most cost-effective filters to be found during development EMC testing, whilst also minimizing delay and avoiding PCB layout iterations, multipurpose pad patterns can easily be created to take any of the following filter configurations zero-ohm link (no filtering, often used as the starting point when EMC testing a new design); (2) a resistor or ferrite bead in series with the signal; a capacitor to the ground plane; (4) common-mode chokes; (5) resistor/ferrite/capacitor combinations (tee, LC, etc.); (6) feed-through capacitor (i.e. centre-pin grounded, not truly feed-through); (7) feedthrough filter (tee)LC, etc., centre-pin grounded, not truly feedthrough). Multipurpose padding also means we are not restricted to proprietary filters and can create our own to best suit the requirements of the circuit (and the product as a whole) at the lowest cost.